Biomolecules
Living cell are made up of many kinds of molecules. These molecules are basic and essential to
the life. Therefore, they are considered as bio-molecules.
Carbohydrate
Carbohydrates are the organic compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Where the h ydrogen
and oxygen are present in the ratio of 2:1 as in water. Thus known as hydrates of carbon.
The general formula of carbohydrate can be written as
C(HO)
If carbohydrate containing aldehydes groups –CHO are called Aldoses
and carbohydrates containing ketons groups C=O are called Ketoses
Classification of carbohydrate.
Carbohydrate are classified into 3 groups on the basic of complexity of chemical substance.
i. Monosaccharides ii. Oligosaccharides iii. Polysaccharides.
i. Monosaccharides:
a. These are chemically simplest form of carbohydrate.
b. They can’t hydrolysed into smaller carbohydrate.
c. They are highly soluble in water.
d. They are sweet in test.
e. They are compose of 3-7 carbon atoms.
Example: glucose, fructose, riboses, deoxyribose etc
ii. Oligosaccharides
Oligosaccharides are those which contain 2-10 molecules of monosaccharides. These
monosaccharides are joined by glycosidic linkage. Common oligosaccharides found in nature are
disaccharides.
Disaccharides
a. Disaccharides are simplest oligosaccharides. They are made up of 2 similar or dissimilar
monosaccharides.
b. They are joined by glycosidic bond.
c. On hydrolysis, it gives monosaccharides. They are soluble in water and sweet in taste.
Example: Maltose, Lactose, Sucrose etc Glucose + Glucose =Maltose
Glucose + Glactose =Lactose
Glucose + Fructose =Sucrose
Glycosidic bond:
it is a type of bond which is formed by joint of 2 monosaccharides
releasing one molecules of water.
iii. Polysaccharides:
a. Polysaccharides are the complex molecules made up of more than 10 molecules of
monosaccharides.
b. Monosaccharides are linked together by glycosidic bonds.
c. On hydrolysis polysaccharides release many monosaccharides.
d. They are insoluble in water and not sweet in teste.
Example: starch, cellulose, glycogen etc.
Function of carbohydrate:
1. Carbohydrate as source of energy.
2. Carbohydrate as building blocks.
3. Carbohydrate as structure components.
4. Carbohydrate as reserve foods.
5. They help in synthesis of fat and amino acids.
Amino acid
Amino acids are the basic units of proteins.
All amino acids have at least one acidic (-COOH) carboxylic group and one basic amino
group (NH).
These are soluble in water and insoluble in organic solvent.
20 amino acid found in natures.
Formation of peptide bond
When two amino acid are joined together by the union of carboxylic group (-COOH) of an
amino acid with the amine group of other amino acid, a peptide bond is formed (-CO-NH) and a
molecule of water is released out.
Types of amino acid
20 types of amino acid divided into 2 categories
1.Essential amino acid:
these are the amino acids which are
not synthesized in the body.
These are 8 in number. Eg: Leucine, Valine, Lysine etc
2.Non-essential amino acid:
these are the amino acids which are synthesized in the body.
These are 12 in number. Eg: alanine, serine, glycine etc.
Function of amino acid
1. Amino acids are building block of protein.
2. Tryptophan is the precursor of plant hormones IAA (Indole acetic acid).
3. - alanine takes part in the formation of co-enzyme A.
Protein
Proteins are polymers of different kind of amino acid. In protein amino acid are linked by
peptide bond. Proteins are most complex chemical compounds formed of C, H, O, N, S and P.
Classification of protein
1.Simple proteins:
these are formed of peptide chain and give in only amino acid on
hydrolysis. Eg: albumins, globulin, histones etc.
2.Conjugated protein:
conjugated protein formed in the combination of simple protein
and non-protein substances. Eg:
Glucose + Protein =glycoprotein
Lipid + Protein =Lipoprotein
Nucleic acid + Protein =Nucleoprotein
3.Derived protein :
protein which are formed by the partial hydrolysis of simple and
conjugated protein. Eg:peptones, proteoses etc.
On the basic of shape protein are divided into 2 types
1.Fibrous proteins:
they are thread like shape. They are insoluble in water. Fibrous
proteins are 2 º- structures. Eg: Keratine, Collagens Elastin etc
2.Globular proteins:
they are oval or spherical shape. They are mostly soluble in water.
Eg:egg albumin, gluten of seed, myoglobin of muscles etc.
Function of proteins
1. Protein as building block.
2. Protein as source of energy.
3. Protein as enzyme.
4. Protein as hormones.
5. Protein as defensive.
Lipids
Lipids are the ester of fatty acid and glycerol. Lipids are the group of fats and fat like substance.
Lipids are heterogenous group of organic compounds. They are made up of C, H and O. they
have less amount of oxygen. They are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents such as
alcohol, ether, benzene, acetone etc.
Types of fatty acid
a.Saturated fatty acid:
they do not have double bond between carbon atoms.
Eg: palmiti acid , Stearic acid.
b. Unsaturated fatty acid:
they have one or more double bond between two carbon atom.
Eg: Oleic acid ( One double bond)
Classification of lipid
Lipids are grouped into 3 categories.
1.Simple lipids :
simple lipids are the ester of fatty acid and glycerol. These are no
additional compounds. On hydrolysis of simple lipids gives fatty acid and glycerol.
2.Complex lipids:
these lipids are conjugated types. When a simple lipids combines with
other compound forms compound lipids.
Glycolipids: Lipids + Carbohydrate
Phospholipids: Lipids + Phosphate
Lipoprotein: Lipids + Proteins Molecules
3.Derived lipids:
these are derived from simple and compound lipid.
Eg: Cholesterol.
Function of lipids:
1. Lipids as a rich source of energy.
2. Lipid as heat insulator.
3. Lipid as food reserve.
4. Lipids as solvent ( fat soluble vitamins ADEK)
5. Lipid act as cushions.
6. Lipoprotein can prevent bacterial disease.
Nucleic acids
Nucleic acid is the most essential molecules of the life. They contain C, H, O, N and P. They
found in genetic material of all organisms including virus. Nucleotides are the monomers of
nucleic acids. Basically nucleotides compose of three components. i.e.
1.Pentose sugar :
two types of pentose sugar found in nucleic acid. RNA contains ribose
sugar and DNA contains deoxyribose sugar.
2.Nitrogenous bases:
two types of nitrogen base are found in nucleic acid.
i. Purine : they are two ring structural compound. Purine are Adenine (A) and Guanine (G)
ii. Pyrimidine: they are one ring structure. Pyrimidines are C ytosine (C) , Thymine
(T) and Uracil (U). ( Uracil is present in RNA only in place of Thymine)
3.Phosphoric acid:
it contains a phosphate group.
Formation of nucleotides
Nucleotide
is formed b y a combination of a sugar, a base and a phosphoric acid.
Nucleoside
is formed by combination of a sugar and a base.
Types of nucleic acid.
Two types of nucleic acid are: -
I. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA):
Occurrence : DNA is located in the nucleus, mitochondria and plastids.
Structure:
DNA is a macromolecule, formed of several thousand monomers. These monomers
are called nucleotides. Watson and crick (1953) have proposed the possible model for the DNA
molecule for which they were awarded the Nobel Prize.
DNA contains followings characters.
1. DNA consists of deoxyribose sugar.
2. Both the strands are spirally coiled.
3. Two stands are antiparallel.
4. These helical stands have sugar-phosphate chain on outer side and purine and pyrimidine
bases on the inner side of helix.
5. The distance between two strands is 20ºA.
6. The distance between two base pairs is 3.4ºA.
7. These are 10 base pairs on a complete turn (34ºA)
8. Purine base is attached to its pyrimidine base. i.e. A=T, C=G
9. Nucleotides in a helix are joined together by phosphodiester bonds.
Function of DNA
1. It carries genetic character from one generation to other.
2. It controls all the biological activities of cells.
3. It synthesizes RNA.
4. It can replicate to form new DNA molecules.
II. Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Occurrence:
RNA found in nucleolus, cytoplasm and ribosome.
Characters:
1. It is single stranded.
2. Each nucleotide consists of a ribose sugar, phosphate and nitrogen base.
3. The nitrogen bases in RNA are Adenine, Guanine, cytosine and Uracil.
4. No of purine is not equal to no of pyrimidine.
Types of RNA
On the basis of molecular size and function, rna dividing into 3 types
a.Messanger RNA (mRNA): it carries the genetic information.
b.Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): it is assiociated with ribosomes.
c.Transfer RNA (tRNA): it carries amino acid molecules to the site of protein synthesis.
Function
1. It plays an important role in protein synthesis.
2. It is the hereditary material in some virus.
Minerals
Organisms need different types of elements for proper life functions. Minerals are the elements
which are present in small amount. Depending upon their concentration required, essential
minerals are categorized into 2 types.
a.Micronutrients: these are required in small amounts (less than 1 gm)
eg: copper(Cu), cobalt (Co), Zinc (Zn), Iron (Fe), Iodine (I) etc.
b. Macronutrients : macronutrients are those which are required in large amounts (more
than 1 gm) eg: calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), Potassium (K), Sodium (Na), Chlorine
(Cl), Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) etc.
Function of minerals
Nitrogen
N is necessary for the synthesis of amino acid, protein, nucleic acid , vitamins, hormones, co-
enzymes, ATP and Chlorophyll.
Phosphorous (P)
P is the structural components of ATP, DNA, RNA, NADP (Nicotinamide adenine diphosphate)
It helps in trans location of food and therefore maintains proper growth of the root system.
Potassium (K) :
K involves in balance of salt in body, opening and closing of stomata, synthesis of nucleic acid
and chlorophyll.
Calcium (Ca) : Calcium provides rigidity and strength of bone and teeth. It activates many enzymes. It is the
component of exoskeleton of many invertebrates. It is necessary for cell division and cell
elongation.
Water
Water is most abundant substance. 60-90% of weight of organism contains water. Water
compose of 2 atoms of hydrogen and one atoms of oxygen, bond angle is 104.5º.
Biological role of water
1. Solvent: water is commonly called universal solvent. It has power to dissolve a number of
solutes.
2. Digestion: water is necessary for digestion of complex compounds into simple compounds.
3. Source of electron: water provides electron to chlorophyll molecules during photosynthesis.
4. Excretion: excretion of waste matter takes place in dissolved state.
5. Movements: plants movements such as opening and closing of stomat a are due to loss and gain
of water.
6.Habitat : a number of aquatic organisms inhabit in water.
Living cell are made up of many kinds of molecules. These molecules are basic and essential to
the life. Therefore, they are considered as bio-molecules.
Carbohydrate
Carbohydrates are the organic compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Where the h ydrogen
and oxygen are present in the ratio of 2:1 as in water. Thus known as hydrates of carbon.
The general formula of carbohydrate can be written as
C(HO)
If carbohydrate containing aldehydes groups –CHO are called Aldoses
and carbohydrates containing ketons groups C=O are called Ketoses
Classification of carbohydrate.
Carbohydrate are classified into 3 groups on the basic of complexity of chemical substance.
i. Monosaccharides ii. Oligosaccharides iii. Polysaccharides.
i. Monosaccharides:
a. These are chemically simplest form of carbohydrate.
b. They can’t hydrolysed into smaller carbohydrate.
c. They are highly soluble in water.
d. They are sweet in test.
e. They are compose of 3-7 carbon atoms.
Example: glucose, fructose, riboses, deoxyribose etc
ii. Oligosaccharides
Oligosaccharides are those which contain 2-10 molecules of monosaccharides. These
monosaccharides are joined by glycosidic linkage. Common oligosaccharides found in nature are
disaccharides.
Disaccharides
a. Disaccharides are simplest oligosaccharides. They are made up of 2 similar or dissimilar
monosaccharides.
b. They are joined by glycosidic bond.
c. On hydrolysis, it gives monosaccharides. They are soluble in water and sweet in taste.
Example: Maltose, Lactose, Sucrose etc Glucose + Glucose =Maltose
Glucose + Glactose =Lactose
Glucose + Fructose =Sucrose
Glycosidic bond:
it is a type of bond which is formed by joint of 2 monosaccharides
releasing one molecules of water.
iii. Polysaccharides:
a. Polysaccharides are the complex molecules made up of more than 10 molecules of
monosaccharides.
b. Monosaccharides are linked together by glycosidic bonds.
c. On hydrolysis polysaccharides release many monosaccharides.
d. They are insoluble in water and not sweet in teste.
Example: starch, cellulose, glycogen etc.
Function of carbohydrate:
1. Carbohydrate as source of energy.
2. Carbohydrate as building blocks.
3. Carbohydrate as structure components.
4. Carbohydrate as reserve foods.
5. They help in synthesis of fat and amino acids.
Amino acid
Amino acids are the basic units of proteins.
All amino acids have at least one acidic (-COOH) carboxylic group and one basic amino
group (NH).
These are soluble in water and insoluble in organic solvent.
20 amino acid found in natures.
Formation of peptide bond
When two amino acid are joined together by the union of carboxylic group (-COOH) of an
amino acid with the amine group of other amino acid, a peptide bond is formed (-CO-NH) and a
molecule of water is released out.
Types of amino acid
20 types of amino acid divided into 2 categories
1.Essential amino acid:
these are the amino acids which are
not synthesized in the body.
These are 8 in number. Eg: Leucine, Valine, Lysine etc
2.Non-essential amino acid:
these are the amino acids which are synthesized in the body.
These are 12 in number. Eg: alanine, serine, glycine etc.
Function of amino acid
1. Amino acids are building block of protein.
2. Tryptophan is the precursor of plant hormones IAA (Indole acetic acid).
3. - alanine takes part in the formation of co-enzyme A.
Protein
Proteins are polymers of different kind of amino acid. In protein amino acid are linked by
peptide bond. Proteins are most complex chemical compounds formed of C, H, O, N, S and P.
Classification of protein
1.Simple proteins:
these are formed of peptide chain and give in only amino acid on
hydrolysis. Eg: albumins, globulin, histones etc.
2.Conjugated protein:
conjugated protein formed in the combination of simple protein
and non-protein substances. Eg:
Glucose + Protein =glycoprotein
Lipid + Protein =Lipoprotein
Nucleic acid + Protein =Nucleoprotein
3.Derived protein :
protein which are formed by the partial hydrolysis of simple and
conjugated protein. Eg:peptones, proteoses etc.
On the basic of shape protein are divided into 2 types
1.Fibrous proteins:
they are thread like shape. They are insoluble in water. Fibrous
proteins are 2 º- structures. Eg: Keratine, Collagens Elastin etc
2.Globular proteins:
they are oval or spherical shape. They are mostly soluble in water.
Eg:egg albumin, gluten of seed, myoglobin of muscles etc.
Function of proteins
1. Protein as building block.
2. Protein as source of energy.
3. Protein as enzyme.
4. Protein as hormones.
5. Protein as defensive.
Lipids
Lipids are the ester of fatty acid and glycerol. Lipids are the group of fats and fat like substance.
Lipids are heterogenous group of organic compounds. They are made up of C, H and O. they
have less amount of oxygen. They are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents such as
alcohol, ether, benzene, acetone etc.
Types of fatty acid
a.Saturated fatty acid:
they do not have double bond between carbon atoms.
Eg: palmiti acid , Stearic acid.
b. Unsaturated fatty acid:
they have one or more double bond between two carbon atom.
Eg: Oleic acid ( One double bond)
Classification of lipid
Lipids are grouped into 3 categories.
1.Simple lipids :
simple lipids are the ester of fatty acid and glycerol. These are no
additional compounds. On hydrolysis of simple lipids gives fatty acid and glycerol.
2.Complex lipids:
these lipids are conjugated types. When a simple lipids combines with
other compound forms compound lipids.
Glycolipids: Lipids + Carbohydrate
Phospholipids: Lipids + Phosphate
Lipoprotein: Lipids + Proteins Molecules
3.Derived lipids:
these are derived from simple and compound lipid.
Eg: Cholesterol.
Function of lipids:
1. Lipids as a rich source of energy.
2. Lipid as heat insulator.
3. Lipid as food reserve.
4. Lipids as solvent ( fat soluble vitamins ADEK)
5. Lipid act as cushions.
6. Lipoprotein can prevent bacterial disease.
Nucleic acids
Nucleic acid is the most essential molecules of the life. They contain C, H, O, N and P. They
found in genetic material of all organisms including virus. Nucleotides are the monomers of
nucleic acids. Basically nucleotides compose of three components. i.e.
1.Pentose sugar :
two types of pentose sugar found in nucleic acid. RNA contains ribose
sugar and DNA contains deoxyribose sugar.
2.Nitrogenous bases:
two types of nitrogen base are found in nucleic acid.
i. Purine : they are two ring structural compound. Purine are Adenine (A) and Guanine (G)
ii. Pyrimidine: they are one ring structure. Pyrimidines are C ytosine (C) , Thymine
(T) and Uracil (U). ( Uracil is present in RNA only in place of Thymine)
3.Phosphoric acid:
it contains a phosphate group.
Formation of nucleotides
Nucleotide
is formed b y a combination of a sugar, a base and a phosphoric acid.
Nucleoside
is formed by combination of a sugar and a base.
Types of nucleic acid.
Two types of nucleic acid are: -
I. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA):
Occurrence : DNA is located in the nucleus, mitochondria and plastids.
Structure:
DNA is a macromolecule, formed of several thousand monomers. These monomers
are called nucleotides. Watson and crick (1953) have proposed the possible model for the DNA
molecule for which they were awarded the Nobel Prize.
DNA contains followings characters.
1. DNA consists of deoxyribose sugar.
2. Both the strands are spirally coiled.
3. Two stands are antiparallel.
4. These helical stands have sugar-phosphate chain on outer side and purine and pyrimidine
bases on the inner side of helix.
5. The distance between two strands is 20ºA.
6. The distance between two base pairs is 3.4ºA.
7. These are 10 base pairs on a complete turn (34ºA)
8. Purine base is attached to its pyrimidine base. i.e. A=T, C=G
9. Nucleotides in a helix are joined together by phosphodiester bonds.
Function of DNA
1. It carries genetic character from one generation to other.
2. It controls all the biological activities of cells.
3. It synthesizes RNA.
4. It can replicate to form new DNA molecules.
II. Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Occurrence:
RNA found in nucleolus, cytoplasm and ribosome.
Characters:
1. It is single stranded.
2. Each nucleotide consists of a ribose sugar, phosphate and nitrogen base.
3. The nitrogen bases in RNA are Adenine, Guanine, cytosine and Uracil.
4. No of purine is not equal to no of pyrimidine.
Types of RNA
On the basis of molecular size and function, rna dividing into 3 types
a.Messanger RNA (mRNA): it carries the genetic information.
b.Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): it is assiociated with ribosomes.
c.Transfer RNA (tRNA): it carries amino acid molecules to the site of protein synthesis.
Function
1. It plays an important role in protein synthesis.
2. It is the hereditary material in some virus.
Minerals
Organisms need different types of elements for proper life functions. Minerals are the elements
which are present in small amount. Depending upon their concentration required, essential
minerals are categorized into 2 types.
a.Micronutrients: these are required in small amounts (less than 1 gm)
eg: copper(Cu), cobalt (Co), Zinc (Zn), Iron (Fe), Iodine (I) etc.
b. Macronutrients : macronutrients are those which are required in large amounts (more
than 1 gm) eg: calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), Potassium (K), Sodium (Na), Chlorine
(Cl), Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) etc.
Function of minerals
Nitrogen
N is necessary for the synthesis of amino acid, protein, nucleic acid , vitamins, hormones, co-
enzymes, ATP and Chlorophyll.
Phosphorous (P)
P is the structural components of ATP, DNA, RNA, NADP (Nicotinamide adenine diphosphate)
It helps in trans location of food and therefore maintains proper growth of the root system.
Potassium (K) :
K involves in balance of salt in body, opening and closing of stomata, synthesis of nucleic acid
and chlorophyll.
Calcium (Ca) : Calcium provides rigidity and strength of bone and teeth. It activates many enzymes. It is the
component of exoskeleton of many invertebrates. It is necessary for cell division and cell
elongation.
Water
Water is most abundant substance. 60-90% of weight of organism contains water. Water
compose of 2 atoms of hydrogen and one atoms of oxygen, bond angle is 104.5º.
Biological role of water
1. Solvent: water is commonly called universal solvent. It has power to dissolve a number of
solutes.
2. Digestion: water is necessary for digestion of complex compounds into simple compounds.
3. Source of electron: water provides electron to chlorophyll molecules during photosynthesis.
4. Excretion: excretion of waste matter takes place in dissolved state.
5. Movements: plants movements such as opening and closing of stomat a are due to loss and gain
of water.
6.Habitat : a number of aquatic organisms inhabit in water.
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